N. Sokoli, S. Axhemi, Emigration in the period of transition in Albania. The social-economic processes that accompany it

The political changes that made it possible for Albania to open up to the world after 1990 were reflected in all aspects related to social, economic and demographic life. The great wave emigration in 1991 led many Albanians to Italy, Greece and other countries. It is obviously difficult to determine precise statistics for this movement, and therefore this article is principally based on indirect data received through various Albanian and foreign resources. In general, results show that we are encountering an heterogeneous and consistently changing reality. So the emigration phenomenon carries many effects, consequences and complex problems, be they economic or social, that are associated with changes in the structures of Albanian society. Since 1990, emigration has been one of the most appealing means of securing the economic future of individuals, families, and of the society as a whole. For some time migration has ameliorated domestic conflicts, especially considering the nature of social and political developments in recent years. Emigration remains one of the most important supports for economic survival in Albania. The emigration of the Albanians is omnipresent even today and with its good and bad sides it is not only an Albanian problem. The future of Albanian emigration depends equally on the internal developments of Albania and the attitudes of Western countries towards this problem.

S. Totev, J. Kalchev, Emigration processes and the socio-economic development in Bulgaria

At the end of the XX century Bulgaria entered a deep demographic crisis. After 1989 it is observed a stable population decrease as a result of the negative natural growth and the emigration processes. This crisis is influencing the entire socio-economic development of the country. The study analyses the ongoing demographic and migration processes in Bulgaria. Different aspects of migration processes are examined – reasons for emigration, illegal emigration, emigration by ethnic groups, etc. An attempt is made to outline the interrelations between the emigration processes and the socio-economic development on one hand and the influence of the regional disparities in Bulgaria on the emigration processes. Finally, some conclusions and policy implications are drawn.

K. Kostadinova - Daskalovska, K. Noshpalovska, Migrations in the Republic of Macedonia and spatial distribution of the population in the 1990s

Due to the absence of migration policy in the country, migration movements of the population in the Republic of Macedonia in the period 1990-1999, as well as during previous periods, occur unorganized. Internal movements are continuing the trend of the 80-ties. The intensity of rural-town migration decreases compared with the period 1961-1971 when this migration reached its culmination. The migration town-town is showing the same tendency, which means that there is no huge mobility in this direction. The population is mostly directed to migrate abroad. The persons that are going on season work abroad are more represented among the rural population. Worrying is the fact that more and more young and educated persons together with all their families are migrating and that such a tendency is likely to continue for a longer period of time. Because of that it is necessary to have an active migration policy in the frame of the long-term development policy of the Republic of Macedonia that should be directed towards increasing the level of socio-economic development of the entire country. The directives should go towards developing the rural areas and the small and medium size towns. Complete and accurate data are needed for creating and leading an active migration policy. It is obvious that the data regarding internal migration are not complete, especially those from regularly made researches based on administrative sources. Due to that, it is necessary to introduce a law regulation in the country that will provide complete monitoring of the internal migrations.

J. Malacic, The Balkan migration stream South-East to North-West

This paper considers the scope and the significance of the South- East to North-West migration stream in the Balkan region. The population census data are used for the analysis of the migrations between republics and autonomous provinces of the second Yugoslavia from the 1960s to the 1980s. The census data are supplemented with the analysis of the Slovenian population register data on migrations. The South- East to North-West Balkan migration stream is explained by push- pull framework of migrations. In the South-East regions of the second Yugoslavia push factors dominated the scene, while in the North-West regions pull factors had been the most important. Industrially more developed Slovenia and neighbouring parts of Croatia had been the constant magnet for immigrants from underdeveloped agricultural regions in the South-East. The economic and political determinants of the internal and external migrations in the former Yugoslav federation intermixed. However, the South-East to North-West migration stream was almost completely determined by the economic factors. The break-away of the second Yugoslavia at the beginning of the 1990s interrupted the topical migration stream of this paper. The new independent states have introduced migration policy with the main aim to curb the international migrations. Therefore, we can expect that the South-East to North- West migration stream in the Balkan region will have much lower importance in the years to come than in the period studied in the paper.

V. Grecic, Forced migrations in the former Yugoslavia

This paper provides an overview of the forced migrations in the former Yugoslavia and in the Balkans. The Balkans have traditionally been a source of instability and political turmoil. However, instability and insecurity have produced population movements, particularly since 1991. The conflicts, first in Croatia, then in Bosnia and Herzegovina and in the Serbian province of Kosovo and Metohija, have produced a dramatic rise in forced migrations. Refugees from the former Yugoslavia are mostly found in countries of the European Union, provoking for some countries (Germany, Italy) serious internal problems. The author considers the number of refugees and internally displaced persons, as well as the problems and possibilities for their return to areas where they used to live, and argues that the international community through diplomacy should have to support all aspects of peace agreements which stipulate necessary material aid for their full implementation.

L. Francovich, Some notes on the role and behaviours of qualified migrants from ex-Yugoslavia

Not all cases of migration of skilled peoples represent a "brain drain" situation. The case of ex-Yugoslavia presents all the usual difficulties of studying skilled migration, because of the lack of data, and in addition the phenomenon has specific features due to the duration of conflict. Specific push and pull factors of skilled migrants have been studied in literature, but in the case of ex-Yugoslavia the war has created additional motivation to migrate for all the population, and for skilled persons as well. The evaluation of the impact of brain drain on the sending country is strictly related to the emigrants’ return probability. In the case of the ex-Yugoslavia we identify in the new-born republics and in the strengthening of the local nationalities an additional reason to go back to the country of origin also for skilled people, and may be especially for them, even though they may have better opportunities of career abroad than a non-skilled refugee has. Economic reconstruction after the conflict also plays a key-role in determining the return of skilled migrants, and international co-operation seems to be an important element in helping to establish a positive trend, especially in the poorest areas like Montenegro. An additional difficulty in assessing the impact of qualified persons’ emigration is that, as it has been stressed, it is not only the number of skilled emigrants that make the difference, but their human capital, that is a purely qualitative aspect to be considered in the analysis.

J.L. Rallu, F. Munoz-Perez, M.J. Carrilho, Return migration from Europe to Spain and Portugal

A study of international return migration using census data would be easier if countries had simultaneous censuses with similar questions on previous residence, preferably 1 year and 5 years prior to census date. Yearly rates of return migration are between 15 per 1000 (France to Spain) and 40 per 1000 (Switzerland to Portugal). Return migration operates a selection according to age, sex, citizenship and education. Itineraries show that return migration is mainly a direct trip home for both Spanish and Portuguese migrants. Return migrants are not only retirees, but include a significant number of working-age adults. They have usually higher qualification levels than total population. They work more often in private sector and are more often employers than total labour force, mainly in Portugal. However, insertion of return migrants in the employed labour force is slow and unemployment rates are much higher than for total population. However, return migrants might not look for work just after return they are likely to wait to find better jobs, what they can afford due to their savings.

K. Iglicka, Mediterranean migration of Poles in the 1990s: patterns and mechanisms

This paper analyses strategies and mechanisms of the income-generating migration of Poles from selected regions of Poland to Italy and Greece after the collapse of the communist rule. Both Italy and Greece have never been the major destination countries for Polish migrants and additionally, sending areas, under study here, have never been typical sending areas for Polish migration. Therefore this author analyses causes and mechanisms of this migration in the context of the social, economic and political transformation that has taken place in Poland after 1989. Both push and pull factors and the role of migrants’ network in the formation of new migration streams are examined here. This article reports the results of an empirical research project on causes and consequences of migration from Poland between 1975 and 1994 conducted by the Institute for Social Studies at Warsaw University (ISS UW) and several other studies.